2009年12月10日 星期四

THE USE OF BLOG TO FACILITATE CLINICAL LEARNING

A FRAMEWORK FOR KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT USING ICT IN HIGHER EDUCATION IN UGANDA

WALTER OMONA and THEO VAN DER WEIDE
Institute for Computing and Information Sciences
Radboud University, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
womona@cs.ru.nl and tvdw@cs.ru.nl

JUDE T. LUBEGA
Faculty of Computing and Information Technology
Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
E-mail: jlubega@cit.mak.ac.ug

ICT and knowledge management have become one of the most important concept to be adopted by higher education institutions (HEI) worldwide to advance their goals. The purpose of this paper is to express a position on a research project to be undertaken to develop a design theory to guide the development of a framework for KM using ICT in higher education in Uganda. The framework is expected to provide users with an integrated means to knowledge and information access and sharing from different and scattered sources from HEI in Uganda. The theoretical basis for the proposed KM framework and the proposed approach for developing and validation of the framework are outlined.


1. Introduction
Knowledge is something that comes from information processed by using data. It includes experience, values, insights, and contextual information and helps in evaluation and incorporation of new experiences and creation of new knowledge. It originates from, and is applied by knowledge workers who are involved in a particular job or task. The key difference between information and knowledge is that information is much more easily identified, organized and distributed while knowledge cannot be easily managed because it resides in one’s mind (Terra and Angeloni, 2003). People use their knowledge in making decisions as well as many other actions. According to Kinney (1998), KM is defined as the process by which an organization creates, captures, acquires, and uses knowledge to support and improve the performance of the organization. It is a tool that can improve organizational performances, lead to better potential for competitive advantage and enable the organization to embark upon new challenges. Interest in KM continues to grow because of the belief that creation and transfer of knowledge is essential to long-term organizational effectiveness. In most circumstances, given a competitive environment, an institution that has a poor KM framework will be inefficient and ultimately its products will become obsolete and competitors will absorb its market share (Hurley and Green, 2005).
HEI abound in potential knowledge repositories such as the collections of electronic and print documents found in libraries as well as expert knowledge available in knowledge portals owned by individual and departments within an institution. These various sources provide access to knowledge and information through published documents and online databases through libraries, bookshops, and the Web and other on-line services (Rowley, 2000). KM framework provides the means through which these resources can be exploited and includes the process of identification, creation and sharing of knowledge. HEI must at all times ensure that they are explicitly managing the processes associated with the creation, maintenance and dissemination of their knowledge assets, and to recognize the value of their intellectual capital to their continuing role in society, and in a wider global marketplace for higher education.
A key element in KM that has been identified to improve HEI performance is ICT. According to Numprasertchai and Poovarawan (2006), ICT helps an organization to capture, distribute, and manage information effectively. In the knowledge-based view, ICT is applied to make an apparent relationship between information and knowledge, and works as knowledge enabling tools for supporting and enhancing the performance of the KM practices. The improvement of ICT performance and the ease of the knowledge transfer are breaking down the time and distance barriers in knowledge access, storage and dissemination (Freeman, 1999). ICT provides channels for storing, acquiring, transferring, exchanging, distributing, and reusing of knowledge faster and more conveniently both internally and externally. They have become an essential component for KM as they enable organizations to exploit knowledge from data and information collected as HEI proceed with the business of teaching, learning and researches. This knowledge can then be exploited to enable these institutions achieve their goals.
In analyzing knowledge work, for examples, Skyrme (2004) and Ho (2007) point out that ICT support knowledge processes and workers through providing ready access to organized information, improved communications and interaction with fellow knowledge workers (either individually or in groups), better access to personal knowledge support tools (such as cognitive mapping tools), use of specific point solutions such as risk analysis in lending, and group decision support systems that facilitate decision making processes. In addition, Denning (2002) points out that ICT such as electronic databases, audio and video recordings, interactive tools and multimedia presentations have become available to extend the techniques for capturing and disseminating knowledge and contents. Using Steyn (2004), we define KM in this study as integrated approaches to identifying, managing, sharing and capitalizing on the know-how, experience and intellectual capital of staff and learners in higher education with a view to advancing the objectives of HEI. The knowledge to be managed here will include explicit and tacit knowledge with particular focus on Document Management System for repository of research and scientific papers, journals, books, thesis and dissertations, teaching and learning materials including locally developed contents and curriculum; Expert Knowledge Portal for tacit knowledge, discussion forums, blogs and experiences; and Global Search Registries for search engines like Google, Yahoo and Microsoft.
2. Statement of the Problem
Higher education in Uganda has been expanding rapidly to meet increasing demand (Kasozi, 2008). In 1986, Uganda had one public University with a small population of students but today there are approximately 28 public and private Universities with a population of around 84000 students. There are also currently some 127 non-university tertiary institutions with a total enrollment of about 45000 students (Kasozi, 2008). This development coupled with the advent of the ICT era and the potential of the Internet to enhance learning and the learning process are resulting into new emerging challenges in information and KM that must be addressed. In the contemporary context of knowledge society and economic globalization, there is a growing recognition that ICT development in HEI can play greater roles in society (Numprasertchai and Poovarawan (2006), Ho (2007). The developments can serve as vehicles of community improvement through knowledge creation and high level human capacity development attained through training of professionals.
Reviews of available literatures show that HEI in Uganda are currently involved in the implementation of KM activities using ICT with no clear defined framework. In the area of electronic content, Browse (2008) points out that the International Network for Availability of Scientific Publications (INASP) and Database of African Thesis and Dissertations (DATAD) are some of the initiatives being undertaken to promote access to electronic information and knowledge resources in Sub-Saharan Africa, Uganda inclusive. INASP aims at widening access and dissemination of scientific and scholarly information and knowledge with and between developing and transitional countries. DATAD on the other hand, is being implemented by the Association of African Universities and aims at facilitating capturing, organizing and disseminating African theses and dissertations electronically. In addition, Makerere University in 2006 launched a Uganda Scholarly Digital Library to act as an institutional repository focused on promoting access and visibility of scholarly research in Uganda and the contents are supposed to include research reports, seminar/conference reports, published articles (pre-prints and post-prints), technical reports, working papers, scientific images, and library collections especially those which are out of print, or with authorized permission to reproduce in digital form (Musoke, 2006).
In this study, we note that HEI in Uganda face the challenges of how to effectively manage their knowledge resources using ICT to advance the goals of higher education (Tusubira et al. 2007). Vast amount of information and knowledge are generated in HEI through teaching, learning, research and outreach programs. There is need to access, share and exchange these knowledge through designing appropriate KM framework that will ensure efficient and effective utilization of available knowledge. The current ways of managing knowledge lack features to integrate the vast amount of knowledge available (Garwood et al. 2004). There are no common, standardized frameworks, procedures or programs for management of knowledge and information resulting into disintegration and under-utilization of knowledge (Hawkins, 2000; Steyn, 2004). In addition, Farrell (2007) points out that the tertiary education sector in Uganda is not particularly integrated at this point and consequently there are no overarching ICT policies or implementation programs. New approaches are required for knowledge collection, maintenance, dissemination, query, and analysis (Huang et al. 2004).
This paper provides the research background and approach for a study we intend to carry out with the aim to developing a design theory to guide the development of a framework for KM using ICT in higher education in Uganda. The study aims at coming out with an appropriate KM framework that integrates higher education processes, KM activities, and enabling ICT for designing such a framework. This will be achieved through studying the current situation in the implementation of KM activities in higher education; evaluating the importance of knowledge in the strategic decision-making and learning process of higher education; examining KM methodology, process, success factors and challenges; and lastly, development of a framework for KM using ICT in higher education based on appropriate design choices/options. The theoretical basis for the KM framework is highlighted. The proposed approach for developing and validation of the framework is also outlined. The value of the study relates to the understanding of KM practices within the Ugandan context and the roles of ICT within a broader KM framework and strategy in higher education, and should contribute to scientific knowledge by defining appropriate metrics for KM and proposing a framework that is necessary for improved KM in higher education in Uganda. The validated tools may also be useful for training and extension of skills by KM implementers, researchers and any other knowledge users.
3. KM, ICT and Collaborative Learning
The application and use of ICT to support KM in higher education is breaching the traditional boundaries through which knowledge are organized and accessed. It is challenging and making obsolete many of our current practices of providing knowledge and information services. ICT uses in KM provides clear example of the promise and pitfalls of new technology, the problems solved, as well as the problems created. Today, digital technology presents us with the potential for greatly enhanced access combined with the challenge of how to manage the access (Hawkins, 2000). An example of this challenge is the mistaken impression that all a person has to do when looking for information is search the World Wide Web. A vast amount of information is indeed available on the web today, but it is not a coherent collection of information.
The practices in knowledge and information services have focused quite effectively on collecting, organizing, and making explicit information and knowledge available. The use of ICT and electronic-based knowledge resources, however, add an entirely new dimension in knowledge service deliveries. Explicit information is much more difficult to acquire because of the explosive, bottom-up nature of electronic knowledge resources, and tacit information is equally difficult to obtain because it is buried in individual memories and electronic links to other sites, databases, and publications. In commenting on KM in the higher education context, Cronin and Davenport (2000) suggest that this formal and informal knowledge can be captured by creating a space, and reconstituting an academic village or communities of practices, so that both explicit and tacit information can be combined and shared by faculties. The challenge is to come up with a customized, yet flexible ICT infrastructure for KM that supports both individual and collective learning so that HEI can adapt to continuous change in its operating environment. Effective KM should ensure that whatever is put in place should encompass the community of scholars in a given discipline and must be able to integrate publications, data sets, and tools for manipulating such data, connection to databases of pictures and images as well as other knowledge resources.
Portal technology is being used by corporations to bring together tacit and explicit information in a "push" technology framework. This has high potential in an academic environment because of its ability to help in screening and filtering of information that can be made available to users. Unlike in the business environments that are characterized by competition, the academic environment is based upon the free flow of information, without competitive concerns. In higher education, the construction of knowledge draws upon an established set of open practices: the scholarly communication system. At the heart of this process lies peer review. When scholars vet their work for publication, they strive to have their ideas as widely disseminated, discussed, and used as possible, including in the classroom, within their disciplinary communities, and in the public sphere. Consulting firms may not routinely broadcast and share information, but these activities are second nature in HEI (Cronin and Davenport, 2000).
KM methods and strategies in educational environments support creative processes and collaborative learning. KM technologies usually involve more than one feature and the more features it has, the better its functionality and collaborativeness (O’Leary, 1998). Working together whether among two or more people means teamwork is involved. According to Abdullah (2005), collaboration can provide a framework for bringing the different heads together, organizing their effort in knowledge sharing, managing the KM processes and producing the result required. When each member collaborates in a mission or project, each would be able to contribute his or her own strength, skills and knowledge, to ensure the best results for undertaking an activity. Cooperation, collaboration and teamwork in KM and higher education are essential to the survival and success of any HEI.
Although the use of ICT as tools for KM has often been associated with stand-alone expert systems, computer networks have attracted much attention recently because of their capability to support knowledge exchanges, sharing and collaboration between various parts of an organization or distinct organizations (Holsapple and Whinston, 1996). ICT such as the World Wide Web has been expanding rapidly and a number of web-based technologies have been making significant impact on people’s social, professional and academic lives and many HEI have implemented one or a combination of these technologies to capture and distribute knowledge in increasingly collaborative environments within and between institutions. These ICT nodes and networks in academic environments include (Norris et al. 2006):
• Global Search Registries: Enable search and access to bulk of web accessible knowledge in the world and includes search engines such as Google, Yahoo, and Microsoft.
• Knowledge Repositories/Digital Libraries: These refer to a computerized system that systematically captures, organizes and categorizes an organization’s knowledge and is usually created by individual academic institution.
• Electronic Academic Publishing: Are proprietary digital libraries for tradebook and academic publishing houses and combine textbook intellectual property with other resources. Examples include Emerald, Elsevier, and Springer.
• Academic Content Exchanges: Include collections of course materials, learning objects, peer reviews and open contents.
• Communities of Practice: Groups of practitioners who use networks in particular fields of endeavor to define a practice and knowledge domain, example include consortia.
• Social Communities of Interest: Are social networks drawn together to share information and build relationships. Examples include MySpace and Facebook.
• Individual Knowledge Networks: A plethora of tools for individuals to manage personal knowledge and networks and includes wikis and blogs.
4. KM Approaches in Higher Education
Over the last one decade, the academic world has experienced a lot of changes in the education sector making higher education to become more dynamic due to mainly the large introduction of computers, internet, intranet, and instructional software applications in campuses. Furthermore, the explosion taking place in the area of digital contents and online resources, as well as the changes in the teaching methods, the nature of curriculum, the size and composition of the student population, and the impact of ICT across every facet of HEI life are challenging the historic models of what a HEI is and how it is supposed to be effectively managed within the community within which it is located. To cope up, HEI are being forced to make new changes in their activities and process management and introducing new innovative approach in the way teaching and learning processes are performed. According to Petrides and Nodine (2003), the use of KM method in education enables the encouragement of the greater intelligence, practical know-how, and effectiveness of HEI management. Kidwell et al. (2000) point out that the use of KM method in higher education can be classified into five main categories. Firstly, KM method is useful for the research processes because it helps to encourage competitiveness and responsiveness to available research grant opportunities; secondly, KM is helpful in the curriculum development processes because it enhances the quality of curriculum and programs, faculty development, and administrative services; thirdly, it is useful in student and alumni services because it helps in improving services such as library, academic measurement, and general information; fourthly, KM is useful in administrative services through decision supports and coordination of different activities; and lastly, KM method is useful in strategic planning of HEI activities, and in the sharing of internal and external information and knowledge from variety of sources.
Effective design and implementation of KM framework in HEI starts with having a proper strategy for KM. A successful KM strategy needs to identify an institution’s key factors and leverage them to achieve business results (Massey et al. 2001). One of the most widely accepted and widely quoted approaches to classifying knowledge from a KM perspective is the knowledge matrix of Nonaka & Takeuchi (1995). This matrix classifies knowledge as either explicit or tacit, and either individual or collective. Nonaka & Takeuchi also propose corresponding knowledge processes that transform knowledge from one form to another: socialization (from tacit to tacit, whereby an individual acquires tacit knowledge directly from others through shared experience, observation, imitation and so on); externalization (from tacit to explicit, through articulation of tacit knowledge into explicit concepts); combination (from explicit to explicit, through a systematization of concepts drawing on different bodies of explicit knowledge); and internalization (from explicit to tacit, through a process of "learning by doing" and through a verbalization and documentation of experiences. Nonaka & Takeuchi model the process of "organizational knowledge creation" as a spiral in which knowledge is "amplified" through these four modes of knowledge conversion.
In higher education settings, Sarawanawong et al. (2009) propose a hybrid KM framework development strategy in which a personalization strategy/human oriented style (or people-to-people) plays a leading role and codification (or people-to-document) plays the supporting roles. The personalization strategy includes knowledge identification, knowledge creation and knowledge acquisition using appropriate ICT enabling tools; while the codification strategy includes knowledge storage, knowledge organization, knowledge distribution, and knowledge application. In their framework, the critical success factors for personalization strategy are culture, staff, and organization management; while that for codification strategy are ICT and KM teams. The other critical success factors mentioned include leadership, KM strategy, KM process, and KM measurements.
Chinowsky and Carrillo (2006) propose a KM framework for higher learning that attempts to bridge the link between KM and learning organization. The framework is based on the KM STEPS and the learning organization maturity models. The KM STEPS model helps organizations to structure and implement KM and to benchmark their implementation efforts, while the learning organization maturity model was developed to provide construction organizations with a framework that identifies a path forward for establishing a learning organization culture. In the framework, the KM STEPS consist of five levels composed of Start-Up, Take-Off, Expansion, Progressive, and Sustainability; while the learning organization maturity model levels include Establishing, Transforming, Integrating, Championing, and Maturing. According to them, the bridge between KM and learning organization is established between the “Expansion” stage levels in the KM STEPS and the “Establishing” stage level in the learning maturity model.
On the other hand, Abdullah et al. (2005) propose a KM system framework in a collaborative environment for higher education that is composed of five components. These include functionality and system architectures aspects as the backbone to support the KM system; psychological aspects, cultural aspects, and the knowledge strategies and measurements or system auditing aspects. The functionality of the framework may consist of portals, electronic document management system, workflow management, data warehousing and artificial intelligence; while the facilities that support the functions of the KM framework may consist of ICT infrastructure and technology as enabler tools; and processes as set of activities to manage knowledge and repositories such as corporate memory. The framework is based on the fact that effective use of available ICT in KM can improve interaction, collaboration and sharing of knowledge in HEI.
5. Emerging Issues
From the previous discussion and analysis, the following initial issues emerge that must be taken note of:
(i) The dynamics involved in and objectives of implementing KM activities using ICT in higher education need to be spelled out and made clear to knowledge seekers, staff and all the other stakeholders involved in higher education.
(ii) Effective design and implementation of KM framework using ICT in higher education derives from having an integrated publications, data sets, tools for manipulating such data, connection to databases of pictures and images as well as collection of knowledge, embedded either in one knowledge repository, or in a series of linked repositories that can allow for sharing and exchanges of knowledge and information.
(iii) The ability to integrate and apply specialized knowledge by organizations and HEI members is fundamental to an institution to create and sustain a competitive advantage.
(iv) Implementing KM activities using ICT in higher education need to be informed and should take into consideration the fact that implementation require knowing not only how KM implementation works, but also the practical skills and ability to use ICT.
(v) All the stakeholders involved in the use and implementation of KM activities using ICT in higher education must be sensitized and given the skills to facilitate and appreciate their active involvement and participation.
(vi) There are needs for exploration and analysis with empirical approaches to establish the challenges and prospects of designing and implementing KM activities using ICT in higher education in the Uganda.

6. Methodology
To achieve the goals of the study to be carried out, a three stage research approach will be employed to conduct the study. The first stage of the study will involve carrying out extensive literature reviews to explore and understand the key concepts, theories and strategies on ICT-based KM framework development in higher education, as well as proposing of a conceptual framework to guide the study.
The second stage of the study will involve carrying out fieldworks using case studies to carry out the investigation. Yin (1984) defines the case study research method as an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context; when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident; and in which multiple sources of evidence are used. Due to the emerging nature of the research, it is proposed to adopt grounded theory as the over-riding research strategy in this stage of the study. Grounded theory is used to generate a theory that explains a process, or processes, about something at an abstract conceptual level in a specific context or setting (Glasser and Strauss, 1967). The other main reasons which we have considered for using grounded theory in this stage of the research include (Denscombe, 2003):
• It is geared to modest localized explanations based on the immediate evidence;
• It adopts an emergent design based on theoretical sampling;
• It is generally linked with qualitative research, exploratory investigations, small scale studies and research focusing on human interaction in specific settings.
To analyse data gathered in this stage, a three-stage approach to analysis developed by Strauss and Corbin (1990) shall be adopted:
• Open coding: the text is read reflectively to identify relevant categories;
• Axial coding: categories are refined, developed and related or interconnected;
• Selective coding: the ‘core category’ or central category that ties all other categories in the theory together is identified and related to other categories.
The third and final stage of the study will be undertaken using action research approach. Rapoport (1970) states that action research aims to contribute to both the practical concerns of people in an immediate problematic situation and to goals of social science through joint collaboration within a mutually acceptable ethical framework. The approach is therefore ideally suited to gaining an understanding of whether technology (ICT) or methodology is perceived useful and helpful in practice, what problems and issues are perceived to arise, and to identify how practice can be improved within the value system of the problem owners (Avison, 1999), which is what our study also intend to achieve in the last stage of the investigation.
7. Proposed Design Framework
Incorporating the theoretical background and emerging issues discussed, our research will adopt a theoretical approach based on Organizational Knowledge Management Systems (OKMS) (Meso and Smith, 2000) to design an appropriate framework for KM using ICT in higher education in Uganda. The OKMS is derived from two KM frameworks that were developed by Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995) and Davenport and Prusak (1998) as they are thought to be more relevant and applicable for organizations that are involved in learning activities like HEI. Here, a lot of information and knowledge are generated for use from knowledge repositories, and the potential of generating of new knowledge among communities of practice (CoP) in a collaborative environment is immense. The OKMS involves the processes for acquiring or collecting, organizing, disseminating or sharing knowledge among people in institutions.
Meso and Smith (2000) define OKMS as a system that provides for the creation of new knowledge, the assembly of externally created knowledge, the use of existing knowledge, and the finding of knowledge from internal and external sources. As shown in figure 1, Meso and Smith (2000) believe that OKMS could fall into two major perspectives, namely: (1) technical perspective, which stresses the employment of a combination of new ICTs; and (2) socio-technical perspective that sees OKMS as combinations of technology infrastructure, organizational infrastructure, corporate culture knowledge, and people. In their view, the socio-technical perspective of OKMS will help generate the sustainable strategic advantages HEI desire, by leveraging the key source of intellectual capital, which is supposed to be the employees and users.

TECHNOLOGY FUNCTIONS












Figure 1: OKMS (Meso and Smith, 2000)

8. Validation of the Framework
Validation of KM framework refers to tools and methodologies for assessment and measurement of KM framework capabilities. It involves defining knowledge and constructing the metrics to assess how effectively HEI are managing their knowledge assets which can be in the form of information combined with experience, context, interpretation and reflection (Davenport and Prusak, 1998). This study will adopt the tools and methodologies developed by Kulkarni and Freeze (2004) called Knowledge Management Capability Assessment (KMCA) to test the validity of the proposed KM framework. KMCA uses the construct validation of principles of translation validity (face and content validity) and criterion-related validity (predictive, concurrent, convergent and discriminant validity (Trochim, 2001) to test the usefulness of a KM framework. The six constructs used include: organizational support, knowledge content quality, system quality, perceived usefulness, user satisfaction, and knowledge use. Translation validity attempts to assess the degree to which accurate translation of the constructs occurred while operationalizing the instruments for testing the framework. This includes both face and content validity for the inclusion of items within the instrument. The criterion-related validity on the other hand assesses the measurement accuracy of the instrument and checks the predictive capability based on the theory of the construct. In a KM study like ours, this involves testing the ability of our framework to measure the capability level of HEI in each knowledge area.
9. Conclusion
The importance of having appropriate KM framework in HEI stems from the need to organize and effectively manage available knowledge and information resources, and provide efficient access to them. This paper gave a research background and approach for a study we intend to carry out to guide the development of a framework for KM using ICT in higher education in Uganda. We note that HEI currently face the challenges of how to effectively manage their knowledge resources using ICT to advance their goals; and that there is need to access, share and exchange these knowledge resources through having in place appropriate KM framework that will ensure efficient and effective utilization of knowledge. Moreover, there are currently no common, standardized frameworks, procedures or programs for management of knowledge and information resulting into disintegration and under-utilization of available knowledge resources. This study is intended to address these limitations and will be carried out in three stages: the first stage will involve carrying out extensive literature reviews to explore and understand the key concepts, theories and strategies on KM framework developments using ICT in higher education, as well as proposing of a conceptual framework to guide the study; the second stage will involved conducting fieldwork using case studies in HEI; and the last and final part of the study will involve the design and validation of the proposed KM framework using action-research study approach. We hope that using the proposed research approaches will help in coming out with an integrated empirical KM framework that is built by incorporating KM processes using ICT into higher education performance. This should contribute to both the theory and practice of KM, and provide HEI with metrics for enhanced organizational memory through active information and knowledge discovery and organizational learning.
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